Institutional Roots of Muslims' Limited Provision of Modern Education in 19th Century Beirut Rigidity versus Openness of Islamic Law: Qadis' and Muftis' motives for innovation within Islamic legal system Receptivity to Legal Change: Merchants’ Adjustment to the New Commercial Laws and Courts in Egypt, 1883-1949 Rethinking Commercial Practices and Laws in Ottoman Syria: Merchants’ Interactions with the Islamic Courts Critical Cartographical Tools and Land Conflicts: The Kurdish Entity in the Arab States (1980-2019) Muslim Immigrants’ Claim for U.S. Citizenship and Islam’s (In)Visibility in the Courtroom, 1900-1944