Abstract
Despite their vastly divergent characters and goals, the popular uprisings of the so-called “Arab Spring” of 2011 shared a number of common features, most especially the use of social and digital media as a means for mass communication and mobilization. Whether in Tahrir, Tehran, or Tripoli, demonstrators staged rallies in the streets to call for the downfall of autocratic rulers and regimes, amplifying their voices with visuals— such as large posters, banners, pamphlets, graffiti, murals, etc.—to further buttress their ideological messages. Battles were staged on the ground and in digital space through the creation of oppositional image-worlds, in which the incumbent icons of state were mocked via caricature, beast allegories, anti-Semitic coding, and other visual forms of humor falling all along the comedic spectrum, from the lighthearted spoof to the biting invective.
In Libya, markedly different pictorial forms of ridicule were unleashed in the public domain. Their chief target was Muammar al-Gaddafi, the “brother leader” of the Libyan Arab Republic and the so-called “King of Kings of Africa,” the latter title bestowed upon him at a meeting of African rulers he convened in Benghazi in 2008. After failing to win support from Arab governments, Gaddafi spent great efforts campaigning for African Unity, fashioning himself as a traditional sub-Saharan chief. His bombastic African title, his Afro-like (shafshufa) hairdo, and his eye-catching robes without a doubt made him an easy target for visual satire, which turned visibly more racist when he and his son, Sayf al-Islam, turned to using mercenaries drawn from the Sudan, Chad, Niger, and Mali to violently suppress street demonstrations. Throughout the uprisings, the opposition sought to degrade Gaddafi through the use of a variety of “BlackFace” visual stereotypes, revealing that within the particular politico-cultural case of Libya, satirical contentions during the “Arab Spring” were not just transgressive and factional but instrumentally racist as well.
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