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“Paradise is beneath the gleaming swords”: Ibadi depictions of the First Kharijites
Abstract
Ibadi renditions of the emergence of the first Kharijites (i.e. the Muhakkima) have been shaped to reflect a concern with Ibadi origins. While Ibadi arguments for the “correctness” of the Muhakkima’s stance come primarily in two main forms – outright verbal disputes between Ibn ‘Abbas and/or ‘Ali and the Muhakkima using the device of a formal debate (munazara); and hagiographical depictions of figures associated with or appropriated for the early Muhakkima. This paper will focus on the second method (i.e. the portrayal of holy persons), focusing specifically on Ibadi characterizations of ‘Ammar b. Yasir, ‘Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi and Hurqus b. Zuhayr in four pivotal Ibadi texts, two of which are from Oman: al-Qalhati’s 6th/12th century al-Kashf wa al-Bayan, al-Izkawi’s late-11th to early-12th/late 17th to early-18th century Kashf al-Ghumma; and two of which are from North Africa: al-Barradi’s 8th/14th century Kitab al-Jawahir and al-Shammakhi’s 10th/16th century Kitab al-Siyar (additionally, abbreviated references to these figures also exist in several earlier Omani sources). All of these sources are thought to preserve earlier material. Ibadi narratives about the Muhakkima portray these three figures as exceptionally pious ascetics and martyrs, and this image, along with the ways that their actions at Siffīn and Nahrawan are made to fulfill Prophetic hadith (in the cases of ‘Ammar and Hurqus), effectively makes the lives of these pious individuals into an “argument” in favor of the Ibadi viewpoint. This concern with pious originating figures reflects the Ibadi propensity to provide what Wilkinson has called “teacher lines” (lists of important personages who transmitted the Ibadi madhhab) as an integral aspect of authenticating the Ibadi view. Thus, the inclusion of hagiographical descriptions of Ibn Yasir, Ibn Zuhayr and Ibn Wahb in Ibadi narratives about the Muhakkima must be understood with regard to how Ibadis of al-Qalhati’s generation and beyond viewed their madhhab as encompassing not only a collection of particular arguments, doctrines and practices, but also the accumulation of personalities whose piety and renown authenticated those doctrines and practices.
Discipline
Religious Studies/Theology
Geographic Area
All Middle East
Sub Area
7th-13th Centuries