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Dunia Wa Din: Gender Implications Of Waqf Establishment, Benefit, Management, And Pre-Mortem Planning
Abstract
The proliferation of dhurri or ahli waqfs in eighteenth-century Bilad al-Sham is well established in the literature. In this paper, I approach waqf as an institution that increasingly reflects the peculiarity of the gender dynamics in Tripoli, in modern day Lebanon. Close analysis of the collection of waqfiyyāt (waqf deeds), in abundance in the registers of the sharia court, confirms that waqf served women’s worldly goals. In theory, a wāqifa (female endower) hoped to profit from her waqf in the spiritual sense but, in practice, waqf also served a material purpose. Despite the theoretically static status of waqfs, a wāqifa remained largely in control of her property during her lifetime; she could designate herself, or anyone else, as sole beneficiary or trustee. Though this was true for males, its social and financial significance for women were more pronounced. Preliminary findings indicate that Tripolitan women used waqf to protect their interests and provide for themselves an income that could sustain them during their duniya (lifetime). Women also used waqf to circumvent the rules on inheritance and give males and females equal shares and bequeath properties to support individuals in their familial and social circles who would typically be excluded. This paper also delves into how mutual interests brought together women and the body of ‘ulamā’, whose influence on the social fabric of Tripoli is evident through the registers. I explore how the appointment of many ‘ulamā’ to wazā’if or occupations within waqfs establishments, financially supported by Tripolitan women, shaped gender norms and bolstered Tripolitan females position vis-a-vis the court. I analyze the significance of the transfer of occupations within the waqf system from females’ natal families to their male progenies and how it might have impacted these women’s marital relationships. Nonetheless, there is every reason to believe that piety was also on the mind of these Tripolitan women when they created these religious endowments to fulfill their dīn (religious) duties, seeking rewards in the hereafter. Therefore, I expand the inquiry to examine the spiritual aspects of Tripolitan females’ pre-mortem planning which is revealed through both waqfiyyāt and tarika or estate inventories. I historicize what tarika documents tell us about women’s quest to ensure salvation in the hereafter, from instructions they left behind concerning their burials, to requests for different type of prayers, and other rituals to be performed at the time of their death and thereafter.
Discipline
History
Geographic Area
Lebanon
Ottoman Empire
Sub Area
None