This paper introduces an innovative geospatial methodology that strategically samples locations within Ottoman subdistricts using population and geophysical data. Analyzing tax survey data from these selected settlements, the study aims to derive precise estimates for the total cultivation area per region/district in the mid-nineteenth-century Ottoman Empire, offering insights into historical agricultural practices. The economic and population geography of the Ottoman Empire has been historically underexplored due to a lack of microdata. Recently accessible mid-nineteenth-century Ottoman tax (temettuat) surveys and population (nüfus) registers provide unprecedented economic and demographic microdata on a per-location basis, presenting a valuable opportunity for comprehensive analysis. Despite the increasing integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) into Ottoman studies, economic historians have yet to systematically organize and harness the distinctive individual-level data available from these sources, resulting in a notable gap in spatial analysis within historical research. Given the predominantly rural nature of the Empire’s population geography, this deficiency has hampered comprehensive analyses of agricultural practices crucial to subsistence and Ottoman economic performance. Essential details, such as the precise distribution of the population, occupational structures, and specifics regarding cultivation before the twentieth century, remain unknown. To address this gap, population and tax data are crucial. While detailed data from population registers and tax surveys are available for each settlement, the sheer volume necessitates a strategic statistical sampling approach. This paper proposes a novel geo-sampling strategy for Ottoman subdistricts, leveraging select representative settlements. Using an Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) within the ArcGIS ecosystem, the methodology considers agricultural suitability based on elevation, ruggedness, and soil quality. Connectivity is also factored in, favoring settlements within a 500-meter radius of historical roads. Additionally, the selection accounts for subdistrict-level population size from the population registers, ensuring that the chosen villages collectively represent at least 5% of the subdistrict's total population. This methodology overcomes the challenge of processing extensive data by focusing on key parameters. To illustrate the results, the paper will estimate the total grain cultivation area per subdistrict in the Bursa region in northwestern Anatolia, with diverse geophysical features and livelihood systems, housing approximately 200 thousand people in 591 populated places in twelve subdistricts. This example showcases the applicability and effectiveness of the proposed methodology in revealing crucial insights into the economic landscape of the Ottoman Empire, where grain cultivation and consumption were at the crux.

Following Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, British strategic interests in the regions, encompassing the eastern territories of Syria and Iraq, intensified dramatically. This surge in interest was mainly driven by the necessity to safeguard routes to British India. Consequently, British scholarly endeavors concerning the ecologies and histories of the Mesopotamian region significantly increased from the early 19th century onwards. Echoing their British counterparts, Ottoman administrators and reformists also consistently underscored the prospective agricultural potential of Mesopotamia, envisioning it as a pivotal agricultural hub capable of sustaining the empire and supplying international markets. Through the utilization of digital humanities tools, this paper endeavors to visually illustrate the divergent British and Ottoman perspectives and geopolitical aspirations concerning Iraq. The focal points of analysis will primarily revolve around two pivotal historical sources: the Seyahatname-i Hudud and The Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia. Seyahatname-i Hudud, authored by Mehmed Hurşid Pasha, offers a unique window into Ottoman perceptions of the region during the mid-19th century. As a scribe within the Ottoman survey commission of 1848-1852, he embarked on numerous expeditions along the Ottoman-Qajar border, meticulously documenting his observations and field notes. This source provides invaluable insights into the Ottoman Empire's territorial concerns and strategic considerations vis-à-vis its neighboring empires, notably the Qajar Empire. The Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia, commonly referred to as Lorimer's Gazetteer, stands as a monumental work compiled by John Gordon Lorimer. Originally commissioned by the British government in India and published in 1908, this comprehensive encyclopedia served as a handbook for British diplomats and officials operating in the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, and Persia. Its detailed documentation of historical and geopolitical details offers a British perspective on the region, reflecting imperial interests and strategic objectives during the early 20th century. By harnessing digital humanities methodologies, this paper aims to juxtapose and analyze the insights gleaned from these two seminal sources, shedding light on the contrasting British and Ottoman spatial understandings of Iraq amidst the dynamic forces of modernization, centralization, and imperialism. Through interactive visualizations and comparative analyses, the paper seeks to unravel the intricate layers of geopolitical discourse and territorial imaginings that shaped the historical landscape of Iraq during this transformative period.

This study delves into the spatial dimensions of the imperial administration mechanism in the early nineteenth-century Ottoman Caucasus, with a specific focus on the fortress of Anapa and the Circassian tribes. It investigates the military recruitment practices of Circassian mountaineer tribes by Ottoman fortress commanders in Anapa and their subsequent integration into the imperial polity before the 1828-29 Russian-Ottoman War. By utilizing Circassian recruitment as a lens to understand the concept of imperial governance, this research highlights the pivotal role played by provincial notables (ayan) in the functioning of the empire. The main theme of this research is to explore the role of the province in governing borderlands. Placing provincial dynamics at its core, the study argues that an examination of the selection criteria employed by the Ottoman government and the qualities sought in appointed candidates for various administrative posts necessitates a reevaluation of the Ottoman administrative mechanism's reliance on provincial networks. During the time span of this study, two different fortress commanders with distinct personal agendas and unique characteristics oversaw the recruitment of the Circassians. Within this framework, this study analyzes how the socio-political identities of different fortress commanders, along with their interaction with various imperial policies, assured the resilience and innovativeness of provincial notables, as well as the flexibility of the Ottoman government. Drawing on archival sources, this research seeks to elucidate the significance of the province in imperial governance and empire-making processes in the Ottoman Caucasus during the early nineteenth century. By focusing on the spatial dynamics of military recruitment and provincial administration, it aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of the complexities of Ottoman governance and the role of provincial relationships in shaping imperial policies. This study offers a nuanced exploration of the governance of a particular borderland area in the Ottoman Caucasus, shedding light on the spatial intricacies of military recruitment, locals’ integration, and governance in the region. It hopes to enrich scholarly discussions on empire, governance, and borderlands within the Middle East and the Caucasus.

A comprehensive investigation into rural demography and land use changes in the Bursa Region from 1840 to 1980 is presented in this study. The availability of modern geospatial datasets like Google Earth Engine and the Global Human Settlement Layer has primarily focused on the latter part of the 20th century, posing challenges in understanding historical shifts in population distribution and land cover practices. Although historical cadastral maps offer detailed land use information, their availability for the Ottoman era was limited to a few pilot studies. Conversely, contemporary textual documentation in survey or census formats, such as Ottoman population and tax registers from the 1840s, lacks spatial context, impeding interdisciplinary analysis of demographic and economic trends in Anatolia over the long term. In this paper, we focus on investigating long-term land use and land cover changes in relation to historical population and agricultural dynamics in the Bursa region, encompassing both its urban center and surrounding rural areas. To facilitate our research, we have acquired aerial photos from the 1950s, which we have mosaicked and orthorectified for our study area. Additionally, we have access to Hexagon KH-9 reconnaissance satellite imagery that covered our research area during its operation from 1971 to 1986. We have also obtained 1980s Hexagon imagery for our study area. In conjunction with these imagery resources, we have geotagged historical population data for all populated places in our region of interest in Bursa for several cross-sections throughout the entire period. By integrating semantically segmented land use and land cover maps from the mid-1950s and the 1980s, along with population data and incorporating mid-nineteenth century demographic and economic data extracted from Ottoman population (nüfus) and tax registers (temettuat), we aim to construct an extended geospatial dataset encompassing both agricultural and demographic information from the 1840s to the 1980s. Our chosen region has witnessed significant historical events, including military conflicts, political transitions, nation-state formation, and social engineering initiatives. In our analysis, we will compare long-term historical dynamics by examining factors such as changes in population densities and the total area of cultivation.