The religion of Twelver Shia Islam developed in a highly factionalized, turbulent, and sectarian time-period. The main Shia book of hadith, Usul al-Kafi, was written specifically to defend the doctrines of Twelver Shia Islam against the theological polemics of other religions, such as Judaism and Christianity, which competed with Islam for followers during the Islamic Middle Ages. Usul al-Kafi also contains multiple polemics against other Muslim groups, most notably Sunnis and Zaydis. The powerful and influential Ismaili sect, which had split with the Twelver sect by the time Usul al-Kafi was written, is also targeted by Al-Kulayni, the compiler of Usul al-Kafi. Ismailism and Twelver Shi’ism dispute the succession to Jafar al-Sadiq, whom they both recognize as a rightful Imam of God. Ismailis maintain that the Imamate passed from Jafar onto his eldest son Ismail, the recognized heir apparent during Jafar’s lifetime, then onto Ismail ibn Jafar’s son, Muhammad ibn Ismail. The Ismailis continued to recognize successors to Muhammad ibn Ismail in a line which continues until this day. The Twelver Shia on the other hand, recognized the succession of Imam Jafar’s younger son, Musa ibn Jafar, and a select number of his descendants which ended with the twelfth Imam, who is believed to exist in a state of occultation. Ismailis wrote detailed polemics against the Twelvers, defending the succession of Ismail ibn Jafar, and scoffing at the idea of a hidden Imam. Al-Kafi contains multiple hadiths which defend the succession of Musa ibn Jafar as the rightful Imam, clearly a defensive polemic against Ismailism. Furthermore, Al-Kafi contains an extensive elaboration on the concept of al-Bada. Al-Bada is best described as an apparent change in God’s will. Al-Kafi utilizes the concept of al-Bada prolifically to defend the selection of Musa ibn Jafar, against Imam Jafar’s widely recognized heir apparent. A thorough study of the polemical nature of Al-Kafi, specifically with regards to Ismailism, can shed light onto the formative period of Twelver Shi’ism. Specifically, it can help scholars better understand the highly sectarian time-period in which modern day Muslim sects developed. It will also shed light on the creative imagination of Al-Kulayni, one of the most influential thinkers in Shia history.

Paradise Lost, published in 1667, is John Milton’s (1608-74) most recognizable literary masterpiece. It claims to justify the “fall” of humanity through an elaborate rewriting of the book of Genesis. A centerpiece in the canon of English literature, scholars have uncovered, studied, and analyzed Milton’s sources from numerous theoretical and historical angles. Having studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Italian, Milton had access to multiple sources that played a role in his account of Genesis. Despite this, there have been few attempts to study his potential involvement with, or exposure to, Islamic philosophy and, particularly, the ideas of the polymath Ibn Sīnā. Ibn Sīnā, otherwise Latinized as Avicenna, is one of the most consequential philosophers in the history of both European and Islamic Philosophy. Avicenna argued for a view of creation in which the world becomes a gradual product of God’s superabundance, emanation, or “effulgence” (fayḍ). He thus argues that God “…is the enactor of the whole” because he is the existent “from whom all existence emanates.” This paper describes how the imaginative language of Milton describes the multiple ways in which God is the first cause of all creation – a theory which is elaborated by Avicenna in his Kitāb al-Shifā’. Milton achieves this by using detailed metaphors, allusions, and descriptions as well as the continuous use of passive voice, particularly, in Uriel’s description of the world’s creation in the third book of Paradise Lost. This paper argues that this use of passive voice in the description of the act of creation highlights a paradox between God’s abstraction and the materiality of His creation. This is an issue that is also raised in the works of Avicenna, as Avicenna’s God is a first principle lacking quiddity, but He also creates by necessity of nature. This paper also considers Avicenna’s invocation in the literary genealogy of Paradise Lost and, chiefly, in Dante Alighieri’s Divina Commedia as well as the philosophy of Marsilio Ficino to explore how Avicenna’s ideas not only entered Milton’s cultural and educational milieu but also how Milton reimagined and gave concrete artistic expression to some of Avicenna's ideas in his complex and multifaceted poem.

Abstract: This study presents a comprehensive analysis of Ṭabāṭabāʾī's approach to political philosophy in Shia Islam, juxtaposing it with Khomeini's Wilāyat al-Faqīh (Guardianship of the Jurist). Beginning with an exploration of al-Fārabī's influence on Muslim political thought, the paper delves into the governance theories of Khomeini, Ṭabāṭabāʾī, and Hāʾirī Yazdī. Contrary to the connections often made with Ṣadrā’s philosophy, this paper posits that Khomeini's governance theory is largely rooted in his jurisprudential interpretation, not in philosophical or mystical influences from Ṣadrā’s thought. The focus then shifts to Ṭabāṭabāʾī’s perspective on governance, which is deeply embedded in his philosophical delineation of "real" versus "mental concepts" or "Secondary intellectual considerations" (al-iʿtibārīyāt al-ʿaqlīya), integrating the dimension of imagination as a vital component in understanding the application of these concepts to societal governance. His approach, emphasizing justice, collective responsibility, accountability, and the adaptability of governance to societal needs, incorporates imagination as a tool to envision and implement governance structures that are responsive and conducive to human development. By leveraging imagination, Ṭabāṭabāʾī underlines the importance of a forward-thinking governance model that transcends conventional jurisprudential limits, advocating for a dynamic interpretation of Islamic law that can evolve with societal progress. The paper further explores Ṭabāṭabāʾī's ideas on mutual employment, societal interaction, and the innate nature of governance in human society, highlighting how imagination plays a crucial role in the practical realization of these ideals. It concludes that while Ṭabāṭabāʾī’s religious and metaphysical works gained prominence post the 1979 Iranian revolution, his contributions to political philosophy, especially in conceptualizing governance through the lens of imagination, are underexplored and hold immense potential for enriching contemporary discourse.

Ibn ‘Arabi’s medieval context provided a way to think about the multiple religious roles of “sainthood” in earlier and contemporary Muslim cultures. This historical presence of the saints and in its legacy found in the developing of Islam in Indonesia particularly in Java region. Until present days, the wayang theater—first adapted as a vehicle for communicating Islamic perspectives by the formative Muslim teachers in Java (the famous “Wali Songo”)—has undergone transformations over many centuries, beginning with the moving popular representation of classical mystical texts (suluk), and evolving into an effective creative vehicle for discussing a wide range of contemporary socio-religious and ethical topics. In each of those forms, the wayang relies on the personification, figurization, and imaginative representation of spiritual guidance and communication conveyed by its familiar stories and cast of characters (lakon). Through those aspects of imagination, the viewers (and listeners) can come closer to grasping in their own lives such central dimensions of walāya/sainthood as the esoteric connections of the hidden and the manifest; the mysteries of inner spiritual knowledge (ma‘rifa or al-‘ilm al-bāṭiniyya); and the deeper meanings of life’s panoply of revealing divine “Signs” (āyāt). In each of these arenas, the manifestations of sainthood—as they are awakened and suggested by the shadow-play—provide an open-ended, ongoing vehicle of spiritual guidance, in keeping with the endless capacities of each person’s creative imagination. When viewed from the perspective of Ibn ‘Arabi’s metaphysics and epistemology, the wayang tradition itself can be understood as only one vehicle—albeit a particularly effective and persistent one—for conveying the spiritual lessons and depths of each individual’s unique religious life and encounters with the divine “closeness” and guidance (walāya) in all its transforming expressions Ultimately, the wayang shadow-theater, with its distinctive combination of characters, stories, and music, is a revealing stage for imagination to discover the deeper spiritual presence of prophecy and walāya in every domain of life. Keywords : walaya, imagination, Ibn 'Arabi, Mirror, Shadow, Society, Wayang, Plurality